The Educational System
This section presents literature and information on educational inequities within the Canadian system, focusing disparities in access, resources, and outcomes.
Research articles
Abada, T., & Tenkorang, E. Y. (2009). Pursuit of university education among the children of immigrants in Canada: The roles of parental human capital and social capital. Journal of Youth Studies, 12(2), 185-207. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676260802558870
Abada, T., Hou, F., & Ram, B. (2009). Ethnic differences in educational attainment among the children of Canadian immigrants. Canadian Journal of Sociology / Cahiers Canadiens de Sociologie, 34(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.29173/cjs1651
Akuoko-Barfi, C., Parada, H., Gonzalez Perez, L., & Rampersaud, M. (2023). “It’s not a system that’s built for me”: Black youths’ unbelonging in Ontario schools. Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies, 45(5), 458-480. https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2023.2240686
Antwi-Boasiako, K., King, B., Black, T., Fallon, B., Trocmé, N., & Goodman, D. (2016). Ethno-racial categories and child welfare decisions: Exploring the relationship with poverty. CWRP Information Sheet #178E. Toronto, ON: Canadian Child Welfare Research Portal. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13676260220134430
Ayoub, M., & Zhou, G. (2016). Somali refugee students in Canadian schools: Pre-migration experiences and challenges in refugee camps. Comparative and International Education / Éducation Comparée et Internationale, 45(3), Article 5. Retrieved from http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cie-eci/vol45/iss3/5
Boatswain-Kyte, A., Esposito, T., & Trocmé, N. (2020). A longitudinal jurisdictional study of Black children reported to child protection services in Quebec, Canada. Children and Youth Services Review, 116, 105219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105219
Briggs, A. Q. (2018). Second generation Caribbean black male youths discuss obstacles to educational and employment opportunities: A critical race counter-narrative analysis. Journal of Youth Studies, 21(4), 533-549. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2017.1394997
Brown, C., Langille, D., Tanner, J., & Asbridge, M. (2014). Health-compromising behaviors among a multi-ethnic sample of Canadian high school students: Risk-enhancing effects of discrimination and acculturation. Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse, 13(2), 158-178. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332640.2013.852075
Cénat, J. M., Blais, M., Lavoie, F., Caron, P.-O., & Hébert, M. (2018). Cyberbullying victimization and substance use among Quebec high school students: The mediating role of psychological distress. Computers in Human Behavior, 89, 207-212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.08.014
Christensen, C. P., & Weinfeld, M. (1993). The Black family in Canada: A preliminary exploration of family patterns and inequality. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 25(3), 26-44. https://doi.org/10.1177/215640991
Clarke, J. (2011). The challenges of child welfare involvement for Afro-Caribbean families in Toronto. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(2), 274-283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.09.010
Clarke, J. (2012). Beyond child protection: Afro-Caribbean service users of child welfare. Journal of Progressive Human Services, 23(3), 223-257. https://doi.org/10.1080/10428232.2012.719119
Codjoe, H. M. (2001). Fighting a ‘Public Enemy’ of Black Academic Achievement—the persistence of racism and the schooling experiences of Black students in Canada. Race Ethnicity and Education, 4(4), 343–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613320120096652
Cooper, A. (2015). Black Canada and the law: Black parents and children in the legal battle for education in Canada West, 1851–1864. In J. W. Walker (Ed.), The history of Blacks in Canada (pp. 25–50). McGill-Queen’s University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780773548459-004
Daniel, B.-J. M. (2023). Racial oases as spaces of positive racial identity socialization among African Canadian post-secondary students. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 36(10), 2177–2195. https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2021.1982047
Davis, A. (2022). “Jamaican” as synecdoche for Black male identification: Performing Blackness in Toronto. Histoire sociale / Social History, 55(114), 399–416. https://doi.org/10.1353/his.2022.0035
Davis, A. N., Gahagan, J. C., & George, C. (2013). “Everyone just keeps their eyes closed and their fingers crossed”: Sexual health communication among Black parents and children in Nova Scotia, Canada. International Journal for Equity in Health, 12(1), 55. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-9276-12-55
Desruisseaux, J. C., St Pierre, L., Tougas, F., & de laSablonniere, R. (2002). Jeunes haïtiens de Montréal et déviance: frustration, méfiance et mauvaises fréquentations. Revue quebecoise de psychologie, 23(3), 43-55. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2003-04975-002
Doherty, A., & Taylor, T. (2007). Sport and physical recreation in the settlement of immigrant youth. Leisure/Loisir, 31(1), 27-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/14927713.2007.9651372
Edwards, T., Brisbane, M., Laylor, A., Chowdhury, R., Parada, H., & King, B. (2023). “I wasn’t Enrolled”: Exploring the Educational Narratives of Black Caribbean Youth Navigating Out-of-Home Care in Ontario’s Child Welfare System. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-023-00955-8
Francis, J., & Yan, M.-C. (2016). Bridging the gaps: Access to formal support services among young African immigrants and refugees in Metro Vancouver. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 48(1), 77-100. https://doi.org/10.1353/ces.2016.0010
Goddard-Durant, S. K., Doucet, A., Tizaa, H., & Sieunarine, J. A. (2023). I don’t have the energy: Racial stress, young Black motherhood, and Canadian social policies. Canadian Review of Sociology, 60(4), 542–566. https://doi.org/10.1111/cars.12457
Goitom, M. (2018). Bridging several worlds: The process of identity development of second-generation Ethiopian and Eritrean young women in Canada. Clinical Social Work Journal, 46(3), 236–248. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-017-0620-y
Gold, J. H., Garner, J. B., Murphy, D., & Weldon, K. L. (1980). Youth in transition: Mental health problems of Black and Micmac students at Dalhousie University. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 25(1), 49-56. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674378002500109
Husbands, W., Lawson, D. O., Etowa, E. B., Mbuagbaw, L., Baidoobonso, S., Tharao, W., Yaya, S., Nelson, L. E., Aden, M., & Etowa, J. (2022). Black Canadians’ exposure to everyday racism: Implications for health system access and health promotion among urban Black communities. Journal of Urban Health, 99(6), 829-841. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-022-00676-w
Hynie, M., Guruge, S., & Shakya, Y. B. (2012). Family relations of Afghan, Karen, and Sudanese refugee youth. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 44(3), 11-28. https://doi.org/10.1353/ces.2013.0011
Ibrahim, A. E. K. M. (1999). Becoming Black: Rap and hip-hop, race, gender, identity, and the politics of ESL learning. TESOL Quarterly, 33(3), 349-369. https://doi.org/10.2307/3587669
Jacquet, M., Moore, D., Sabatier, C., & Masinda, M. (2008). Integration of young francophone African immigrants in francophone schools in British Columbia. Metropolis British Columbia. Simon Fraser University. https://www.metropolis.bc.ca
James, C. E. (2011). Students “at risk”: Stereotypes and the schooling of Black boys. Urban Education, 47(2), 464–494. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085911429084
Jani, P., Song, N., Artna, E., Lyeo, J., Assam, A., Maelzer, F., Murphy, A., Grant, A., & Archie, S. (2022). Online knowledge translation program involving video games and university student–led tutorials about cannabis and psychosis for Black youth: Mixed method feasibility study. JMIR Formative Research, 6(6), e33693. https://doi.org/10.2196/33693
Jones, C., & Shen, J. (2014). Neighborhood social capital, neighborhood disadvantage, and change of neighborhood as predictors of school readiness. Urban Studies Research, 2014, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/204583
Kamanzi, P. C. (2023). Pathways of Black immigrant youth in Québec from secondary school to university: Cumulative racial disadvantage and compensatory advantage of resilience. Canadian Review of Sociology, 60(3), 409-437. https://doi.org/10.1111/cars.12446
Kamanzi, P. C., & Collins, T. (2018). The postsecondary education pathways of Canadian immigrants: Who goes and how do they get there? International Journal of Social Science Studies, 6(2), 58-68. https://doi.org/10.11114/ijsss.v6i2.2866
Khalil, C., Goldfarb, R., Travers, R., & Coleman, T. (2021). HIV risk in African, Caribbean and Black youth: Perceptions of community leaders in the Windsor-Sussex region. University of Toronto Medical Journal, 98(3), 38-44. https://doi.org/10.1177/07067437221125305
Kikulwe, D., Sato, C., & Agyei, J. (2021). A critical analysis of the Assessment and Action Record (AAR) documentation: Examining the educational experiences of Black youth-in-care in Ontario. INYI Journal, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.25071/1929-8471.87
King, B., Fallon, B., Boyd, R., Black, T., Antwi-Boasiako, K., & O’Connor, C. (2017). Factors associated with racial differences in child welfare investigative decision-making in Ontario, Canada. Child Abuse & Neglect, 73, 89–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.09.027
Krahn, H., & Taylor, A. (2005). Resilient teenagers: Explaining the high educational aspirations of visible-minority youth in Canada. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 6(3-4), 405-434. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-005-1020-7
Larochette, A.-C., Murphy, A. N., & Craig, W. M. (2010). Racial bullying and victimization in Canadian school-aged children: Individual and school-level effects. School Psychology International, 31(4), 389–408. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034310377150
Lavergne, C., Dufour, S., Trocmé, N., & Larrivée, M. C. (2008). Visible minority, Aboriginal, and Caucasian children investigated by Canadian protective services. Child Welfare, 87(2), 59-76. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/48623035
Lee-Foon, N. K., Logie, C. H., Siddiqi, A., & Grace, D. (2020). “”I just trust what Google says, it’s the Bible””: Exploring young, Black gay and other men who have sex with men’s evaluation of sexual health information sources in Toronto, Canada. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 29(3), 275-288. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjhs.2020-0026
Litchmore, R. V. (2021). She’s very known in the school: Black girls, race, gender, and sexual violence in Ontario schools. Qualitative Psychology, 9(3), 232-250. https://doi.org/10.1037/qup0000221
Livingstone, A.-M., Celemencki, J., & Calixte, M. (2018). Post-secondary pathways among second-generation immigrant youth of Haitian origin in Quebec. Canadian Journal of Education, 41(2), 413-440. https://doi.org/10.2307/90025220
Livingstone, A., Celemencki, J., & Calixte, M. (2014). Youth participatory action research and school improvement: The missing voices of black youth in Montreal. Canadian Journal of Education, 37(1), 283-307. https://www.cje-rce.ca
Magnan, M. O., Pilote, A., Collins, T., & Kamanzi, P. C. (2019). Discours de jeunes issus de groupes minoritaires sur les inégalités scolaires au Québec. Diversité urbaine, 19, 93-114. https://crires.ulaval.ca/publication/61a6d84e036ba74f16368c6a
Makani, J., Fremprong, G., Mandeya, N. P., McPherson, M., & Idris, T. (2022). Remote learning experiences of African Nova Scotian households in Canada during the COVID-19 temporary school closure: Implications for inclusive education policy implementation. International Journal of Inclusive Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2022.2107719
Mason, A., Salami, B., Fouché, C., Richter, S., Sibeko, L., & Adekola, S. (2022). Aspirations, schooling experiences, and educational outcomes of African migrant children in Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 54(2), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1353/ces.2022.0013
Mondain, N., & Lardoux, S. (2013). Transitions to adulthood among first generation Sub-Saharan African immigrant adolescents in Canada: Evidence from a qualitative study in Montreal. International Migration & Integration, 14(3), 307–326. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-012-0240-x
Msofe, J. (2021). The importance of mentorship support for African refugee students in Ontario secondary schools. Diaspora, Indigenous, and Minority Education, 15(1), 10-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15595692.2020.1795637
Mulatris, P., & Liboy, M. G. (2010). La conciliation travail-études: défis et réalité pour les jeunes élèves africains noirs de Brooks. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 41(3), 191-205. https://immigrationfrancophone.ca/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Mulatris-et-Liboy-2009.pdf
Nyika, L. (2022). African immigrant students’ participation in Canadian health-promoting schools. Health Education Journal, 81(4), 399-412. https://doi.org/10.1177/00178969221087679
Parker, P., Hagan, J., & Dinovitzer, R. (2003). Choice and circumstance: Social capital and planful competence in the attainments of immigrant youth. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 28(4), 463-488. https://doi.org/10.2307/3341838
Patte, K. A., Gohari, M. R., & Leatherdale, S. T. (2021). Does school connectedness differ by student ethnicity? A latent class analysis among Canadian youth. Multicultural Education Review, 13(1), 64-84. https://doi.org/10.1080/2005615X.2021.1890310
Ruck, M. D., & Wortley, S. (2002). Racial and ethnic minority high school students’ perceptions of school disciplinary practices: A look at some Canadian findings. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31(3), 185-195. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015081102189
Salami, B., Alaazi, D. A., Ibrahim, S., Yohani, S., Scott, S. D., Vallianatos, H., Urichuk, L., & Islam, B. (2021). African immigrant parents’ perspectives on the factors influencing their children’s mental health. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 31(1), 142-154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-02130-y
Salami, B., Idi, Y., Anyieth, Y., Cyuzuzo, L., Denga, B., Alaazi, D., & Okeke-Ihejirika, P. (2022). Factors that contribute to the mental health of Black youth. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 194(41), E1404-E1410. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.212142
Sara Schroeter & Carl E. James (2015) “We’re here because we’re Black”: the schooling experiences of French-speaking African-Canadian students with refugee backgrounds, Race Ethnicity and Education, 18:1, 20-39, https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2014.885419
Schroeter, S., & James, C. E. (2015). We’re here because we’re Black: The schooling experiences of French-speaking African-Canadian students with refugee backgrounds. Race Ethnicity and Education, 18(1), 20–39. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2014.885419
Sibblis, C., Deckard, N. D., & Anazodo, K. S. (2022). The colour of system avoidance in Canada: Investigating the importance of immigrant generation among African Canadians. Canadian Review of Sociology, 59(4), 470–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/cars.12407
Simmons, A. B., & Plaza, D. E. (1998). Breaking through the glass ceiling: The pursuit of university education among Black youth in Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 30(3), 99-121. gale.com/apps/doc/A82883438/LitRC?u=anon~c3da3dfd&sid=googleScholar&xid=d8e6f120.
Smith, A., Schneider, B. H., & Ruck, M. D. (2005). “Thinking about makin’ it”: Black Canadian students’ beliefs regarding education and academic achievement. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34(4), 347-359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-005-5759-0
Stirling-Cameron, E., Hickens, N., Watson, C., Hamilton-Hinch, B., Pimentel, M., & McIsaac, J. D. (2023). Anti-Black racism in the early years: The experiences of Black families and early childhood educators in Nova Scotia. Health Promotion and Chronic Disease Prevention in Canada, 43(8), 355-364. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.43.8.01
Tardif-Grenier, K., Archambault, I., & Janosz, M. (2011). Les pratiques parentales, le désengagement scolaire des amis et le rendement scolaire chez les élèves du secondaire nés à Haïti et fréquentant une école en milieu défavorisé. Revue de psychoéducation, 40(2), 261-282. https://doi.org/10.7202/1061848ar
Thiessen, V. (2009). The pursuit of postsecondary education: A comparison of First Nations, African, Asian, and European Canadian youth. Canadian Review of Sociology, 46(1), 5-37. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-618X.2009.01201.x
Waldron, I., Senger, B., Cookey, J., Crown, M., & Tibbo, P. (2023). Addressing stigma and promoting help-seeking among African Nova Scotian youth experiencing psychosis and other mental health problems. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 68(3), 200–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/07067437221125305
Wilkinson, L. (2002). Factors influencing the academic success of refugee youth in Canada. Journal of Youth Studies, 5(2), 173-193. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676260220134430
Wilson-Forsberg, S., Masakure, O., Shizha, E., Lafrenière, G., & Mfoafo-M’Carthy, M. (2020). Great expectations: Perspectives of young West African immigrant men transitioning to the Canadian labour market without postsecondary education. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 21(4), 1309–1328. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-019-00718-4
Wilson, C. L., & Flicker, S. (2017). Let’s talk about sex for money: An exploration of economically motivated relationships among young, Black women in Canada. Sociological Studies of Children and Youth, 23, 97-119. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1537-466120170000023006
Woodgate, R. L., & Busolo, D. S. (2018). Above chaos, quest, and restitution: Narrative experiences of African immigrant youth’s settlement in Canada. BMC Public Health, 18, 333. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5239-6
Woodgate, R. L., & Busolo, D. S. (2021). African refugee youth’s experiences of navigating different cultures in Canada: A “push and pull” experience. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(4), 2063. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18042063
Worswick, C. (2004). Adaptation and inequality: Children of immigrants in Canadian schools. Canadian Journal of Economics / Revue canadienne d’économique, 37(1), 53-77. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0008-4085.2004.003_1.x
Wortley, S., & Tanner, J. (2005). Data, denials, and confusion: The racial profiling debate in Toronto. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 47(3), 581-609. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjccj.47.3.581
Zaami, M. (2020). Strategizing to strengthen social inclusion: The agency of Black African immigrant youth in Alberta, Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 52(3), 87-106. https://doi.org/10.1353/ces.2020.0017
Reports
Black Youth Action Network. (2020). Educational outcomes and the impact of systemic racism on Black youth in Ontario schools. Black Youth Action Network. Retrieved from https://www.byan.ca/education-report
Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives. (2019). Racial inequities in education: The experience of Black children and youth in Canada. Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives. Retrieved from https://www.policyalternatives.ca/racial-inequities-report
Canadian Race Relations Foundation. (2018). Exploring the impact of systemic racism on educational disparities for Black children and youth in Canada. Canadian Race Relations Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.crrf-fcrr.ca/education-report
Canadian Teachers’ Federation. (2020). The role of anti-Black racism in education: A national survey of teachers and administrators. Canadian Teachers’ Federation. Retrieved from https://www.ctf-fce.ca/english/Research/Documents/Anti-BlackRacismReport2020.pdf
Ontario Human Rights Commission. (2017). Systemic racism in Ontario’s education system. Ontario Human Rights Commission. Retrieved from https://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/systemic-racism-in-ontarios-education-system
Report of the Royal Commission on the Status of Women in Canada. (2020). A look into education disparities and experiences of Black youth in Canada. Government of Canada. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/government/report-royal-commission.html
Social Planning Toronto. (2020). Racial equity and youth: Addressing the barriers faced by Black youth in Toronto’s education system. Social Planning Toronto. Retrieved from https://www.socialplanningtoronto.org/black_youth_report
The Urban Alliance on Race Relations. (2017). The impact of anti-Black racism on youth success in education. The Urban Alliance on Race Relations. Retrieved from https://www.uarr.org/impact-report
Videos
Black students speak out about the racism they face in school:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GUHFq6aSRco
Report sheds light on anti-Black racism in Ontario schools: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XO487XQxQXs
Anti-Black racism in Ontario’s education system is not up for debate:https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=375184247954180
Combatting Anti-Black Racism in Schools:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n6KBYsnpqpQ
Documentaries
Zero Tolerance:https://www.nfb.ca/playlists/anti-racism-films/playback/#10
